Development of a Simulation Tool for Adoption and Deployment of Autonomous Vehicles

Development of a Simulation Tool for Adoption and Deployment of Autonomous Vehicles

Project description

The adoption of Autonomous Vehicle Technology poses a range of technical, behavioural, policy, and cyber-security challenges.This project aimed to develop a simulation tool that evaluates the direct and indirect impacts of Autonomous Vehicle (AV) deployment, incorporating factors such as technological maturity, consumer incentives, decarbonisation, and data-cybersecurity. The tool provides critical insights for stakeholders to assess 'what-if' policy and technology scenarios for effective deployment strategies.

This project has set the stage for a new era of innovation and expertise essential to Australia's shift toward connected and autonomous vehicles. By integrating deep consumer insights with cutting-edge cybersecurity strategies, we’re turning technical breakthroughs into actionable policy pathways.

Outcomes

  • Developed one of the first comprehensive, theoretically grounded system dynamics-based simulation tool for AV deployment scenario analysis, including cyber-risks. 
  • Initiated a pioneering survey-based study capturing four OECD countries, including Australia, to examine public perceptions of cyber risks and autonomous vehicles.
  • Identified key policy levers—such as consumer incentives, regulatory timing, and cybersecurity frameworks—that significantly influence AV uptake and system-wide outcomes.
  • Trained two PhD students and two master’s (course-based) students in AV systems and cybersecurity
  • Produced over 19 peer-reviewed publications, including 15 high-quality journal articles

Lead contact

Professor Nirajan Shiwakoti (Email: nirajan.shiwakoti@rmit.edu.au)

RMIT researchers

PhD Graduates

  • Dr. Yilun(Allen) Chen 
  • Dr. Shah Khalid Khan (PhD Student)

Masters (coursework-based) Graduates

  • Mr. Marvin Beining
  • Mr. Christoph Hinterkopf

Project partner

  • FORUM8 Pty Ltd

Funding agency

  • Australian Government, Department of Industry, Innovation and Science (Grant No. AEGP000050)

Journals

  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P., Chen, Y. and Warren, M., 2025. Cybersecurity framework for connected and automated vehicles: A modelling perspective. Transport Policy, 162, pp.47-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2024.11.019
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P. and Warren, M., 2025. Cybersecurity Regulations for Automated Vehicles: A Conceptual Model Demonstrating the" Tragedy of the Commons". Transportation Research Procedia, 82, pp.3729-3751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2024.12.019
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P., Chen, Y. and Warren, M., 2024. The impact of perceived cyber-risks on automated vehicle acceptance: Insights from a survey of participants from the United States, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Australia. Transport policy, 152, pp.87-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2024.05.002
  • Chen Y, Khan SK, Shiwakoti N, Stasinopoulos P, Aghabayk K. Integrating perceived safety and socio-demographic factors in UTAUT model to explore Australians' intention to use fully automated vehicles. Research in Transportation Business & Management. 2024 Oct 1;56:101147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rtbm.2024.101147
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P., Chen, Y. and Warren, M., 2024. Exploratory factor analysis for cybersecurity regulation and consumer data in autonomous vehicle acceptance: Insights from four OECD countries. Transportation research interdisciplinary perspectives, 25, p.101084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2024.101084
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P. and Warren, M., 2024. Driving a safer future: Exploring cross‐country perspectives in automated vehicle adoption by considering cyber risks, liability, and data concerns. IET Intelligent Transport Systems, 18(11), pp.1999-2014. https://doi.org/10.1049/itr2.12541
  • Chen, Y., Khalid Khan, S., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P. and Aghabayk, K., 2023. Analysis of Australian public acceptance of fully automated vehicles by extending technology acceptance model. Case Studies on Transport Policy, 14, 101072  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cstp.2023.101072
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P. and Warren, M., 2023. Modelling cybersecurity regulations for automated vehicles. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 186, p.107054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2023.107054
  • Chen, Y., Stasinopoulos, P., Shiwakoti, N. and Khan, S.K., 2023. Using system dynamics approach to explore the mode shift between automated vehicles, conventional vehicles, and public transport in Melbourne, Australia. Sensors, 23(17), p.7388. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23177388
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P. and Warren, M., 2023. Cybersecurity regulatory challenges for connected and automated vehicles–State-of-the-art and future directions. Transport policy, 143, pp.58-71.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2023.09.001
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P. and Warren, M., 2023. A multinational empirical study of perceived cyber barriers to automated vehicles deployment. Scientific Reports, 13(1), p.1842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2023.09.001
  • Chen, Y., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P. and Khan, S.K., 2022. State-of-the-art of factors affecting the adoption of automated vehicles. Sustainability, 14(11), p.6697. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116697
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N. and Stasinopoulos, P., 2022. A conceptual system dynamics model for cybersecurity assessment of connected and autonomous vehicles. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 165, p.106515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2021.106515
  • Stasinopoulos, P., Shiwakoti, N. and Beining, M., 2021. Use-stage life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of the transition to an autonomous vehicle fleet: A System Dynamics approach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 278, p.123447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123447
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P. and Chen, Y., 2020. Cyber-attacks in the next-generation cars, mitigation techniques, anticipated readiness and future directions. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 148, p.105837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2020.105837

Conference papers

  • Chen, Y., Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N. and Stasinopoulos, P., 2024. Australian public perceptions of fully automated vehicles. In Proc. Australas. Transp. Res. Forum (ATRF) (pp. 1-14). https://australasiantransportresearchforum.org.au/australian-public-perceptions-of-fully-automated-vehicles/
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P. and Warren, M., 2022, June. Cybersecurity Readiness for Automated Vehicles. In 2022 International Conference on Frontiers of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning (FAIML) (pp. 7-12). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/FAIML57028.2022.00012
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P. and Warren, M., 2021, November. Security assessment in Vehicle-to-Everything communications with the integration of 5G and 6G networks. In 2021 International Symposium on Computer Science and Intelligent Controls (ISCSIC) (pp. 154-158). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISCSIC54682.2021.00037
  • Khan, S.K., Shiwakoti, N., Stasinopoulos, P. and Warren, M., 2021, December. Dynamic assessment of regulation and policy framework in the cybersecurity of Connected and Autonomous Vehicles. In Proc. Australas. Transp. Res. Forum (ATRF) (pp. 1-14). https://trid.trb.org/View/2239941
aboriginal flag float-start torres strait flag float-start

Acknowledgement of Country

RMIT University acknowledges the people of the Woi wurrung and Boon wurrung language groups of the eastern Kulin Nation on whose unceded lands we conduct the business of the University. RMIT University respectfully acknowledges their Ancestors and Elders, past and present. RMIT also acknowledges the Traditional Custodians and their Ancestors of the lands and waters across Australia where we conduct our business - Artwork 'Sentient' by Hollie Johnson, Gunaikurnai and Monero Ngarigo.

More information